Positive Health Online

Borderline Low Haemoglobin Levels, Usually Considered Normal, Linked to a Higher Risk of Death

People with borderline anaemia (haemoglobin levels just above the World Health Organization (WHO) threshold used to define anaemia) face a greater risk of death than others who have higher haemoglobin levels within a ‘normal range’, according to new research.

The major new study, led by the University of Glasgow and published in the Annals of Internal Medicine[1], analysed data from nearly half a million UK Biobank participants who had been followed for more than 10 years, making it one of the largest investigations of its kind to assess the potential links between haemoglobin and mortality risk.

Overall, researchers found a U-shaped association between haemoglobin concentration and mortality, with values at both extremes linked to the highest risk. However, the lowest risk of death from any cause was found at haemoglobin concentrations 1 to 3 g/dL above current WHO thresholds, in both men and women.

Notably, people with borderline anaemia were found to have a greater risk of death than those who had higher haemoglobin concentrations within the WHO - defined normal range. The research team say these findings highlight the importance of building a more nuanced understanding of anaemia, particularly around the potential health impacts of borderline anaemia.

Haemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen around the body. Its concentration is one of the most commonly measured blood tests and is routinely assessed in both primary care and hospitals.

In older adults both high and low haemoglobin levels are associated with a range of negative health outcomes, including cognitive decline, cardiovascular disease, and more broadly, an increase in the risk of hospitalisation and death. However, while high haemoglobin (polycythaemia) is very rare, impacting only about 7 people out of every 100,000 in the UK, low haemoglobin (anaemia) is very common.

Currently, anaemia is diagnosed using thresholds set by the WHO that have been largely unchanged for 50 years: a haemoglobin below 12 g/dL for women and 13 g/dL for men. Only people below these levels are conventionally classified as being anaemic.

Dr Malek Ahmad, clinician-scientist at the University of Glasgow and the first author of the study, said: “Our data show that the lowest risk of death is associated with a ‘definitely normal’ haemoglobin, 1 to 3 g/dL above the conventional WHO definition of anaemia. Risk already starts to increase with ‘borderline anaemia’, before haemoglobin falls below the current WHO threshold.”

Dr Pierpaolo Pellicori, Consultant Cardiologist at Queen Elizabeth University Hospital, Senior Lecturer at the University of Glasgow, and the corresponding author said: “The current WHO. thresholds have served clinical practice for decades, but our findings suggest that the relationship between haemoglobin concentration and long-term health is more nuanced than a single diagnostic cut-off can capture. Whether this should influence clinical practice is an important question for future research.”

Anaemia is usually caused by iron deficiency or, more rarely deficiencies in vitamin B12 or folate, or diseases that reduce blood cell production, such as severe kidney disease, any chronic inflammatory disease. Iron deficiency may be caused by poor diet, medicines that block the absorption of iron, including treatments for indigestion, or increased blood losses from stomach ulcers or cancer of the gut or kidneys.

Professor John Cleland, Professor of Cardiology and senior author of this study, said: “The most important purpose of clinical diagnostic criteria is to inform the management of patients. Currently, many clinicians do not even recognise a person has anaemia until its moderately severe, for example less than 11 g/dL. Showing that borderline anaemia is associated with increased risk and a high prevalence of iron deficiency should encourage investigation and treatment of a broad range of patients with mild/borderline anaemia.”

Professor Paul Welsh, Professor of Molecular Epidemiology and Director of the Glasgow Biomarker Research Unit at the University of Glasgow, said: “The very large study population, long follow-up and consistency across several statistical approaches make this a robust association. However, this remains an observational study. The next question is whether low-normal haemoglobin can help identify treatable underlying conditions and improve patient care.”

The researchers emphasise that this study shows an association, not proof that investigating or treating people just above the threshold would improve wellbeing or outcomes, which needs to be tested directly in future research. Their findings instead point to where that research should focus and add to a wider debate about how well diagnostic thresholds, many set decades ago, reflect the risks people actually face today.

The study entitled, “Association between blood haemoglobin concentration and mortality by age and sex: a prospective cohort study,” is published in the Annals of Internal Medicine.[1]

Reference

1. Ahmad M. et al. Association Between Blood Hemoglobin Concentration and Mortality by Age and Sex : A Prospective Cohort Study. Ann Intern Med. 26-00057. Sep 8 2026. doi: 10.7326/ANNALS-26-00057

Further Information 

For more information contact Elizabeth McMeekin or Ali Howard in the University of Glasgow Communications and Public Affairs Office on Elizabeth.mcmeekin@glasgow.ac.uk  or ali.howard@glasgow.ac.uk

Modern IVF Achieves Higher Success Rates with Single Embryo Transfer

Modern IVF treatment can now achieve substantially higher success rates than historical approaches while dramatically reducing twin and triplet pregnancies, according to new research presented at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE).[1]

In one of the largest IVF studies of its kind, researchers analysed outcomes from 18,396 women undergoing their first IVF cycle between January 2012 and December 2021 across seven Australian fertility clinics, with follow-up through December 2023.

The research found that modern IVF clinical practices achieved a 68.2% cumulative live birth rate over three treatment cycles, while using single embryo transfer in 95.3% of embryo transfers and maintaining a multiple birth rate of just 2.9%.

The findings mark a notable improvement on historical IVF outcomes. Earlier studies, conducted before the widespread adoption of modern IVF laboratory techniques, reported three-cycle cumulative live birth rates of around 53–59%, often alongside multiple pregnancy rates exceeding 20%. The researchers say the improved outcomes likely reflect advances including blastocyst culture, embryo vitrification, freeze-all strategies and optimised frozen embryo transfer protocols, now widely used in contemporary IVF care.

Researchers examined cumulative live birth rates across up to three IVF cycles using contemporary clinical protocols, including extended blastocyst culture (day 5–6 embryo development), embryo vitrification (rapid freezing) and elective freeze-all approaches where appropriate. Women using donor eggs, frozen eggs or specific genetic testing pathways were excluded from the analysis. Across all women, the cumulative live birth rate over three treatment cycles reached 58.7% using intention-to-treat analysis and 68.2% using optimal per-protocol analysis.

Success rates varied substantially by age. Women under 35 achieved an optimal cumulative live birth rate of 84.5%, compared with 74.4% for women aged 35–37, 57.7% for women aged 38–40 and 30.1% for women aged 41–42.

Lead author Dr Dean Morbeck said the findings reflect a decade of incremental advances in IVF laboratory and clinical practice.

“The biggest shift has been that blastocyst culture has moved from being an exception to becoming the default,” Dr Morbeck explained. “That change drove improvements across IVF laboratories, including reduced oxygen conditions, purpose-built incubators and minimised disruption to embryos during culture.”

“Blastocyst culture also became much more effective with vitrification, which dramatically improved embryo survival after freezing and warming, making frozen embryo transfer outcomes comparable to fresh transfers. Together, these advances enabled approaches such as freeze-all treatment, where embryos are transferred one at a time later, rather than during the initial stimulation cycle.”

The study also examined changes over time, comparing outcomes before and after laboratory improvements introduced from 2016 onwards, including single-step culture medium and time-lapse embryo culture. Between 2012–2015 and 2017–2021, the proportion of fertilised eggs developing into usable blastocysts increased from 48.3% to 57.6%, while single embryo transfer increased from 92.8% to 97.3%. Over the same period, the multiple birth rate fell from 3.2% to 2.7%.

Dr Morbeck said the findings challenge the longstanding assumption that transferring multiple embryos is necessary to maximise IVF success.

“For many years, transferring two embryos increased the chance of pregnancy from any one transfer, but often came with twin pregnancy rates approaching 30%,” he explained. “What our data show is that this trade-off has largely disappeared.”

“Across more than 18,000 women, we achieved strong cumulative live birth rates while using single embryo transfer in 95% of cases and maintaining a twin birth rate under 3%. A concerted effort to reduce twin pregnancies has not cost patients their chance of taking home a baby – it has coincided with that chance increasing.”

The findings also suggest that strong IVF outcomes can be achieved without routine use of preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy (PGT-A) – a test used to screen embryos for chromosomal abnormalities before transfer – in all patients.

PGT-A was used in one or more treatment cycles in 25% of women included in the study. However, Dr Morbeck noted that most live births occurred without routine embryo genetic testing.

“PGT-A has an important role for some patients, particularly women of advanced maternal age and those with recurrent pregnancy loss,” he said. “But our findings should reassure many patients that strong IVF outcomes are achievable without routine genetic testing necessarily being required.”

Discussing the implications of the findings, Dr Morbeck said the results support continued efforts to increase access to single embryo transfer internationally. “The future of IVF is continuing to improve the success rate of each embryo transfer while maintaining the safety gains we’ve achieved,” he said.

Reflecting on the significance of the research, Professor Borut Kovacic, Chair-elect of ESHRE, said: “Improvements in IVF are typically driven by steady, incremental advances rather than dramatic breakthroughs. This study demonstrates that optimising laboratory practices, adhering to evidence-based guidelines and adopting a relatively conservative treatment approach can progressively increase cumulative live birth rates while reducing multiple births – two outcomes that matter most to patients seeking a safe and cost-effective route to parenthood within a single stimulation cycle.”

The study abstract will be published in Human Reproduction,[1] one of the world’s leading reproductive medicine journals.

Note

A reference to the ESHRE Annual Meeting must be included in all coverage and/or articles associated with this study. For more information or to arrange an expert interview, please contact the ESHRE Press Office at: press@eshre.eu

About the Study Author

Dr Dean Morbeck is Chief Scientific Officer at Genea Fertility in Sydney and an adjunct Associate Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at Monash University, Melbourne. A clinical embryologist by training, he has led IVF laboratory and scientific programmes across Australia, Thailand, New Zealand, Malaysia and the United States – including roles as Scientific Director at Fertility Associates (New Zealand) and Sunfert International (Malaysia), Chief Scientific Officer at Kindbody and Associate Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology and of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology at the Mayo Clinic. His work focuses on embryo culture and laboratory quality and their influence on IVF outcomes. He currently serves as Secretary of Alpha Scientists in Reproductive Medicine and holds a BSc from the University of Wisconsin, an MSc and PhD in Physiology from North Carolina State University and an MBA from Augsburg College.

About the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology

The main aim of ESHRE is to promote interest in infertility care and to aim for a holistic understanding of reproductive biology and medicine.

ESHRE collaborates world-wide and advocates universal improvements in scientific research, encourages and evaluates new developments in the field, and fosters harmonisation in clinical practice. It also provides guidance to enhance effectiveness, safety and quality assurance in clinical and laboratory procedures, psychosocial care, and promotes ethical practice. ESHRE also fosters prevention of infertility and related educational programmes and promotes reproductive rights regardless of the individual’s background. ESHRE’s activities include teaching, training, professional accreditations, mentoring and career planning for junior professionals, as well as developing and maintaining data registries. It also facilitates and disseminates research in human reproduction and embryology to the general public, scientists, clinicians, allied personnel and patient associations.

Website: https://www.eshre.eu/

About Human Reproduction

Human Reproduction is a monthly journal of ESHRE and is one of the top three journals in the world in the field of reproductive biology, obstetrics and gynaecology. It is published by Oxford Journals, a division of Oxford University Press.

Reference:

[1] Morbeck, D., et al.  Modern IVF clinical practices achieve superior cumulative live birth rates with near-universal single embryo transfer: A multi-cycle cohort study. Human Reproduction. 2026.

Further Information

For further information please contact Hannah Rushton via Hannah.rushton@beyondpr.com   https://www.beyondpr.com/

Six Times the Struggle: GP Insight Reveals Menopause Insomnia Crisis

 Recent research has revealed the dramatic toll menopause takes on sleep, with 90% of peri- and menopausal women reporting disturbed nights, and 81% experiencing full-blown insomnia.[1] GP with a special interest in menopause and lifestyle medicine, Dr Rosie Khan, is urging action, offering practical advice and guidance to help women reclaim their rest.

Commissioned by Kalms Herbal Remedies, the nationally representative survey of 1,000 peri- and menopausal women highlights the growing toll menopause takes on sleep and overall wellbeing.

Almost a quarter (23%) report struggling to sleep every night, and nearly one in five (18%) experience insomnia daily.  The impact goes far beyond tiredness: 68% say poor sleep increases their stress and anxiety – which in turn makes it even harder to rest, trapping many women in a state of constant fatigue and tension.

Key findings include:  

• Nearly three quarters (72%) noticed a decline in sleep quality since entering perimenopause or menopause
• 70% rarely get more than six hours of uninterrupted sleep; 72% wake feeling groggy even after a full night
• 68% feel tired most of the time, with 57% regularly relying on naps just to get through the day 36% say poor sleep is straining their relationships, with 46% choosing to sleep separately from their partner to avoid disruptions
• 37% rely on sugary snacks, caffeine or energy drinks for a daily boost – a coping mechanism that can ultimately worsen symptoms

Why the Menopause Disrupts Sleep

Dr Rosie Khan explains that hormonal changes during menopause are closely linked to disrupted sleep patterns:

“As levels of oestrogen and progesterone decline, they can interfere with the body’s internal clock, known as the circadian rhythm, and disrupt the production of key neurotransmitters like serotonin and melatonin, both of which help regulate sleep. This can make it harder to fall asleep and stay asleep. While hot flushes and night sweats are well-known culprits, many women also experience insomnia, low mood and fatigue even without these symptoms, creating a perfect storm for restless nights.”

 Seeking Support and Safe Solutions

The study also highlights the impact of poor sleep on physical wellbeing, with 57% of women reporting associated health issues such as headaches, high blood pressure, and other symptoms.

Around 1 in 10 women (13%) said they had been prescribed medication for sleep, including Z-drugs or melatonin. However, many remain cautious about relying on medication long-term: 47% expressed concerns about potential side effects, and 51% were uneasy about the extended use of such treatments.

Instead, a growing number are exploring alternative approaches. Nearly half (44%) have tried non-prescription remedies or supplements, while 23% said they had stopped taking prescribed medication altogether, preferring more natural or holistic ways to manage their sleep.

With many women struggling to break the cycle of sleepless nights and rising stress, Dr Khan offers simple yet effective strategies to help support more restful sleep during this challenging life stage.

Dr Khan’s Tips tor Restful Menopausal Sleep

1. Create a sleep-positive environment
   “Setting the right environment can have a powerful impact on your ability to fall, and stay, asleep. Dim the lights an hour before bed to encourage melatonin production, the hormone that supports sleep. Leave phones and other electronic devices outside the bedroom, as the blue light they emit can interfere with your body’s natural sleep-wake rhythm and hinder rest. Instead, make your bedroom a calm, clutter-free space. Keep it cool, dark and quiet, and opt for breathable bedding and pyjamas to help ease discomfort from hot flushes and promote uninterrupted sleep.”
2. Rethink evening habits
   “Establishing healthy habits in the evening can make a big difference to how well you sleep. Avoid rich, sugary or spicy foods, as well as caffeine and alcohol, in the hours before bed, as these can all interfere with your ability to drift off. A warm bath with lavender-infused bubbles can help soothe muscle tension and calm a busy mind, while unwinding with a good book, rather than scrolling on your phone, can ease you into a more restful state.”
3. Unwind your Mind
   “Stress and anxiety are major disruptors of sleep, so it’s important to find ways to calm your mind before bed. If you find yourself lying awake with racing thoughts, consider incorporating a relaxation technique. One effective method is deep breathing, try the box breathing technique: inhale for four seconds, hold your breath for four, exhale for four, and hold again for four seconds before repeating the cycle. This simple exercise can help activate your parasympathetic nervous system, inducing a state of calm and helping you to relax.”
4. Consider Natural Remedies
   “Some women explore natural remedies to support their sleep, such as valerian root or lavender oil. There is some evidence suggesting that valerian root may have calming properties[2], and that lavender oil could support relaxation in cases of anxiety-related sleep disturbance[3] . Research is still ongoing in this area. If you're considering incorporating supplements into your routine, it’s always wise to consult a healthcare professional to ensure they’re suitable for your individual needs.”

Kalms Day and Kalms Night One-A-Night both contain valerian root, known for its calming effects on the nervous system. Valerian root works by influencing GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), a neurotransmitter that plays a key role in promoting relaxation.[4] This can help reduce stress and support better sleep and has even been shown to reduce hot flashes[5], without causing drowsiness or dependency.

Find out more at www.kalmsrange.com.

 About the Research

A nationally representative study conducted by Censuswide involving 1,000 peri-and menopausal UK respondents. Commissioned by Kalms Herbal Remedies February 2025. 

About Dr Rosie Khan

Dr Rosie Khan is a Certified Practitioner in Lifestyle Medicine for Perimenopause, combining over 20 years of experience as both an NHS and private GP. She holds a Postgraduate Diploma from the Royal College of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, a Medical Diploma in Clinical Hypnosis and a Diploma in Transformational Coaching.

Having personally navigated perimenopause, Dr. Khan combines her medical expertise with a holistic approach to help women manage their symptoms. Dr. Khan is passionate about empowering women to take control of their health, using a blend of medical knowledge and transformative tools to support their well-being. For further information, visit www.drrosiekhan.com.

References

1. Menopause and emotional well-being: A nationally representative study conducted by Censuswide involving 1,000 peri-and menopausal UK respondents. Commissioned by Kalms Herbal Remedies. February 2025.
2. Office of dietary supplements - valerian (2013) NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Available at: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Valerian-HealthProfessional. 
3. Seifritz, E., Kasper, S., Möller, H. J., Volz, H. P., Müller, W. E., Eckert, A., & Hatzinger, M. (2022). Effect of anxiolytic drug silexan on sleep – a narrative review. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 23(7), 493–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/15622975.2021.2013092
4. National Institutes of Health. Office of dietary supplements - valerian (2013) NIH Office of Dietary Supplements. Available at: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Valerian-HealthProfessional.
5. Mirabi, P. and Mojab, F. (2013) The effects of Valerian Root on hot flashes in menopausal women, Iranian journal of pharmaceutical research: IJPR. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3813196. 

Further Information

For further information please contact Darcey Moore darcey.moore@beyondpr.com

Parkinson's Disease Costs Europe €22.8 Billion a Year as Cases Rise, New Study Shows

The annual societal cost of Parkinson's disease across Europe reached €22.8 billion in 2019, equivalent to €28.8 billion at 2025 prices, a new study published today in Movement Disorders has shown.[1] As the number of people living with Parkinson's disease continues to grow, researchers warn that health and social care systems are likely to face increasing pressure.

The research estimated that approximately 2.2 million adults were living with Parkinson's disease across 47 European countries in 2019. The condition resulted in €17.3 billion of direct medical and non-medical costs, €4.4 billion in unpaid informal care provided by family members and friends and a further €1 billion in indirect costs due to lost productivity.[1]

Parkinson's disease is the world's second most common and fastest-growing neurodegenerative disorder.[2,3] Its prevalence in Europe has nearly doubled since 1990, rising from 135 to 247 cases per 100,000 people.[4] This increase has been driven by an ageing population, alongside improved disease recognition and advances in diagnosis.[2,5]

The study found that direct medical and non-medical costs, such as hospital care, medications, social care and home adaptations, accounted for more than three-quarters (76%) of the total economic burden of Parkinson's disease. These findings underscore the substantial demands the condition places on health and social care systems.

Informal care represented almost one-fifth (19%) of the total burden, highlighting the essential role played by family members, friends and other unpaid caregivers in supporting people living with Parkinson's disease.

Günther Deuschl, Senior Professor and founding president of the European Academy of Neurology (EAN), commented, “Studies in different countries have already shown that Parkinson’s disease is costly, but this study has provided a detailed account of the disease burden in Europe by modelling the costs for every European country based on all available evidence.”

The research forms part of the Cost of Illness in Neurology in Europe (COIN-Eu) initiative, led by the EAN, which aims to quantify the societal and economic burden of major neurological diseases across Europe. Researchers combined prevalence estimates from the Global Burden of Disease Study[6] with cost data identified through a systematic review of published European cost-of-illness studies to estimate the annual economic burden of Parkinson’s disease.

Overall, Germany recorded the highest national costs at €5.7 billion, followed by France (€5.3 billion), Italy (€2.6 billion), Spain (€1.9 billion) and the United Kingdom (€1.6 billion). Together, these five countries accounted for approximately 75% of the total economic burden of Parkinson's disease across Europe.

“These figures reflect not only the number of people living with Parkinson's disease, but also the quality and cost of the care they receive”, explained Professor Richard Dodel from the University Duisburg-Essen. “The concentration of costs in these five countries is likely due to a combination of their large populations, higher age-related prevalence of Parkinson's disease, higher healthcare costs in wealthier countries and the greater availability of data, rather than any single factor.”

The study also identified important evidence gaps. Of the 14 eligible cost studies included in the analysis, 13 came from high-income countries, and no eligible primary cost data were available from lower-middle-income countries, meaning the economic burden could not be estimated for those nations. Consequently, the €22.8 billion estimate covers 43 of the 47 countries assessed for prevalence. The authors emphasise the need for more standardised methods of measuring Parkinson's disease costs to produce more consistent and comparable evidence and support future healthcare planning and policy decisions.

"These findings provide policymakers, healthcare planners and the neurological community with important evidence to better understand the growing burden of Parkinson's disease and to plan for future care needs", concluded Professor Günther Deuschl. "The EAN will continue to monitor the burden and costs of neurological diseases as part of our mission to improve the lives of people living with neurological conditions."

Press Enquiries

A reference to the EAN must be included when communicating the information within this press release. For further information or to speak to an expert, please contact the press team at press@ean.org.

About the Expert

Prof. Günther Deuschl is Senior Professor of Neurology at Kiel University, Germany, and former Head of the Department of Neurology at the Christian-Albrechts University of Kiel. He is internationally recognised for his pioneering work in Parkinson’s disease, tremor, movement disorders, and deep brain stimulation, and served as the founding President of the European Academy of Neurology (EAN).

Prof. Richard Dodel is Professor of Geriatrics and Neurology at the University of Duisburg–Essen, Germany. His research focuses on neurodegenerative diseases, dementia, Parkinson’s disease and clinical trials. He an internationally known expert for health-care research and economic aspects of neurological disorders.

About the Study

The Parkinson's disease analysis forms part of the Costs of Illness in Neurology in Europe (COIN-Eu) project, a European initiative led by the European Academy of Neurology (EAN) that aims to assess the societal and economic burden of major neurological diseases across Europe.

Researchers combined 2019 prevalence estimates from the Global Burden of Disease Study with cost data identified through a systematic review of published European cost-of-illness studies, identifying 14 eligible publications. Where country-level cost data were unavailable, costs were imputed using World Bank gross national income categories and country-specific economic indicators. All costs were standardised to 2019 values and converted to euros using purchasing power parities. The estimates were validated by clinical experts affiliated with the EAN.

Costs were estimated across three categories:

• Direct costs (medical and non-medical)
• Informal care costs
• Indirect costs from productivity losses

Prevalence was assessed across all 47 EAN member countries. Cost estimates were generated for 43 of these countries (30 high-income and 13 upper-middle-income countries), as no eligible primary cost data were available for lower-middle-income countries.

 About the EAN

The EAN is a non-profit, independent organisation representing more than 45,000 members, as well as 48 European national societies. As a medical society, we promote excellence in the practice of general neurology throughout Europe, leading to improved patient care.

We also aim to keep Europe at the forefront of neurological research and maintain its position as one of the world’s leading scientific hotspots in neurology.

Learn more: https://www.ean.org/

References

1. Welter, L., Kruse, C., Montes-Martinez, M. et al. (2026). The Costs of Parkinson's Disease in Europe: Results of the Costs of Illness in Neurology Initiative. Movement Disorders.
2. Deuschl, G., Beghi, E., Fazekas, F., Varga, T., Christoforidi, K. A., Sipido, E., et al. (2020). The burden of neurological diseases in Europe: An analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. The Lancet Public Health, 5(10), e551–e567. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30190-0
3. Zhu, J., Cui, Y., Zhang, J., Yan, R., Su, D., Zhao, D., Wang, A., & Feng, T. (2024). Temporal trends in the prevalence of Parkinson's disease from 1980 to 2023: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Healthy Longevity, 5(7), e464–e479.
4. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. (2025). Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Results Tool.https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-results/ 
5. Li, M., Ye, X., Huang, Z., Ye, L., & Chen, C. (2025). Global burden of Parkinson's disease from 1990 to 2021: a population-based study. BMJ Open, 15(4), e095610. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-095610
6. Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 (GBD 2019) Data Resources | GHDx. https://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-2019

Further Information

For further information please contact Press press@ean.org